THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

ie6e 

no.36-47 


K^»K^ 


UniversityoTnto^i^ 


UNIVERSITY     OF     ILLINOIS     BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XIII  January  18,  1926  Xo.  20 

[Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  11,  1912,  at  the  post  office  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the 
Act  of  August  24,  1912.  Acceptance  for  mailing  at  the  special  rate  of  postage  provided  for  in 
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EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  CIRCULAR  NO.  40 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 

Adaptation  of  Subject-Matter  and  Instruction 

to  Individual  Differences  in  the 

Elementary  School 

By 

Pedro  T.  Orata 

Graduate   Student,  University  of  Illinois 


Tttf  ISRRS.RY  m  'Kf 

FEB  1  7  1926 
UMVEHSfry  of  tuunm 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

URBANA 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

Mr.  Orata's  early  education  was  in  the  schools  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  and  hence  he  approaches  prob- 
lems relative  to  education  with  a  unique  background. 
For  this  reason  his  discussion  of  the  "adaptation  of 
subject-matter  and  instruction  to  individual  differences 
in  the  elementary  school"  should  be  especially  in- 
teresting. 

The  manuscript  for  this  circular  was  originally  pre- 
pared as  a  term  paper  in  a  graduate  course  in  the 
Department  of  Education.  It  was  revised  by  Mr.  Orata 
and  then  edited  for  publication  by  members  of  the 
staff  of  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research. 

Walter  S.  Monroe,  Director, 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research. 
December  10,  1925. 


tut  wmm  «'  " 

FEB  1 1  1926 

UNIVERSITY  Of  IU"*** 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/adaptationofsubj40orat 


ADAPTATION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  IN- 
STRUCTION TO  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 
IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

The  problem.  The  development  of  education  in  the  last  two  decades 
has  brought  with  it  several  changes  in  aims,  ideals  and  methods  of  edu- 
cational endeavor.  One  of  these  changes  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  a 
great  many  teachers  and  administrators  to  replace  the  present  group  or 
simultaneous  instruction  with  a  system  of  individual  instruction  or  with 
a  highly  systematized  homogeneous  grouping  for  purposes  of  adapting 
subject-matter  and  instruction  to  differences  in  interests  and  capacities 
of  school  children.  The  scope  of  this  study  is  limited  to  a  consideration 
of  the  problem  of  adaptation  of  content  and  of  method  to  individual 
differences  in  the  elementary  school  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  teacher. 

More  definitely,  the  author  proposes  to  answer  the  following  ques- 
tions, which  inevitably  arise  as  one  attempts  to  consider  the  solution  of 
this  general  problem. 

I.  What  evidences  do  we  have,  and  to  what  extent  are  they  valid, 
which  lead  us  to  believe  that  it  is  necessary  to  adapt  subject-matter  and 
instruction  to  differences  in  interests  and  capacities  of  school  children? 

II.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  differences  which  we  find  in  ele- 
mentary school  children? 

III.  What  are  some  of  the  devices  and  methods  to  which  a  teacher 
may  resort  in  order  to  meet  these  individual  differences? 

IV.  What  criteria  should  guide  a  teacher  in  selecting  and  in  using 
a  particular  method  or  device  so  that  the  outcomes  of  learning  and 
teaching  may  be  in  agreement  with  the  ultimate  aims  of  education? 

The  first  and  second  of  these  questions  may  be  answered  by  pre- 
senting factual  evidence,  which  is  abundant  in  educational  literature. 
The  answer  to  the  third  requires  the  canvas  of  current  discussions  of 
adaptation  of  instruction  to  individual  differences  in  order  to  collect 
possible  devices  and  methods.  The  fourth  question,  which  appears  to 
be  most  important  and  fundamental,  takes  us  into  the  fields  of  educa- 
tional theory  and  practice.  Assuming  that  differences  in  capacities  and 
interests  of  elementary  school  children  exist,  and  that  several  methods 
and  devices  may  be  used  in  adapting  subject-matter  and  instruction,  we 
can  determine  whether  we  are  producing  the  right  kind  of  output  in  the 
way  of  habits,  skills,  ideals  and  attitudes  only  by  applying  our  ultimate 
educational  objectives  as  criteria. 

[S] 


Factors  that  led  to  an  interest  in  adaptation  to  individual  differ- 
ences. There  are  at  least  three  factors  that  are  responsible  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  interest  in  the  consideration  of  individual  differences 
in  the  process  of  instruction.  First,  the  science  of  psychology  has  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  there  are  very  wide  differences  among  individual 
pupils  in  their  capacity  to  learn;  that  these  differences  tend  to  be 
general  so  that  one  who  is  above  the  average  in  solving  algebraic  prob- 
lems is  very  likely  to  be  above  the  average  in  memorizing  poetry,  in 
learning  geography,  and  the  like;  and  that  these  differences  usually 
persist  throughout  life  so  that  one  who  is  bright  or  dull  in  the  primary 
grades,  will,  other  things  being  equal,  be  bright  or  dull  in  high  school 
and  in  college.  Educational  psychology,  consequently,  has  led  the  way 
to  recognizing  the  child  as  the  central  factor  in  the  teaching  process. 
The  second  factor  contributing  to  the  movement  is  the  wide-spread  use 
of  tests  for  measuring  achievement  and  intelligence.  Such  tests  furnish 
objective  data  as  to  the  amount  and  extent  of  individual  differences. 
The  third  and  final  factor,  partly  a  result  of  the  first  two,  is  the  exten- 
sion of  the  meaning  of  democracy  in  our  schools.  The  former  ideal  of 
"equal  education  for  all,"  has  been  changed  to  "equal  opportunity  for 
education  for  all,"  meaning  not  only  that  equal  chances  for  going  to 
school  should  be  extended  to  all,  but  also  that  further  opportunity 
should  be  given  each  pupil  to  advance  in  his  studies  according  to  his 
own  rate. 

Individual  instruction  not  a  new  idea.  Up  to  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  prevailing  method  of  instruction  was  individual.  Each  pupil  ad- 
vanced to  the  teacher's  desk  when  his  turn  came,  recited  upon  the  work 
that  he  had  prepared,  received  a  new  assignment,  and  returned  to  his 
seat.  The  writer  had  the  lot  of  being  instructed  in  the  "kindergarten" 
under  Philippine  teachers.  The  curriculum  consisted  of  the  three  R's 
and  some  advanced  courses  in  grammar,  geography  and  arithmetic, 
and  the  method  of  instruction  was  largely  individual.  So  far  as  the 
writer  can  remember,  this  method  succeeded  in  as  much  as  the  task 
involved  either  training  in  skill  in  manipulation,  as  in  arithmetic  and 
handwriting,  or  memorizing,  as  in  the  case  of  grammar,  geography,  and 
the  like.  The  aim  of  education  at  that  time  was  merely  so  many  facts 
memorized,  so  many  words  in  Spanish  translated,  so  much  multiplica- 
tion or  division  done,  and  so  many  prayers  learned  and  recited. 

Simultaneous  instruction  adopted  during  nineteenth  century.  The 
growing  complexity  of  social  organization,  together  with  other  factors 
resulting  from  the  development  of  institutional  life,  brought  with  it 
several  changes  in  our  conception  of  education.    First  of  all,  universal 

[6] 


primary  education  made  the  school  enrollment  larger  than  could  be 
taken  care  of  by  the  number  of  teachers  employed  under  the  system  of 
individual  instruction,  and  the  state  could  not  afford  to  hire  many  more 
teachers  than  were  under  employment.  Secondly,  the  extension  of  the 
curriculum  tended  to  increase  the  load  of  the  instructional  staff.  The 
third,  and  perhaps  the  most  important  factor,  and  one  that  developed 
near  the  close  of  the  century,  was  the  change  in  the  ideal  and  aim  of 
education  as  a  result  of  the  development  of  the  science  of  sociology. 
Whereas,  under  the  system  of  individual  instruction,  the  aim  of 
education  had  been  the  development  of  each  child  independent  of  that 
of  the  other  pupils  in  the  class,  educational  sociology  and  social  psychol- 
ogy proposed  and  insisted  that  the  child  must  be  developed  as  a  result 
of  its  association  with  other  children. 

Social  point  of  view  advocated  by  educational  writers.  John 
Dewey  clearly  expresses  in  all  his  educational  writings  his  belief  in  the 
school  as  a  social  institution.  This  fact  is  shown  especially  in  his  article 
"My  Pedagogic  Creed"  from  which  the  following  quotation  is  selected. 
"I  believe  that  the  school  is  primarily  a  social  institution.  Education  be- 
ing a  social  process,  the  school  is  simply  the  form  of  community  life  in 
which  all  these  agencies  are  concentrated  that  will  be  most  effective  in 
bringing  the  child  to  share  in  the  inherited  resources  of  the  race,  and  to 
use  his  powers  for  social  ends.  I  believe  that  education,  therefore,  is  a 
process  of  living  and  not  a  preparation  for  future  living."1 

W.  R.  Smith  in  an  extended  quotation  on  the  same  topic  says  in 
part,  "The  individual  must  not  only  possess  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound 
body,  and  come  into  the  spiritual  inheritance  of  the  race  to  be  fully 
educated,  but  he  must  be  brought  into  active  and  harmonious  relations 
with  his  environment.  The  individual  must  not  only  be  personally 
efficient;  he  must  be  socially  efficient.  Individual  development  without 
training  for  social  service  may  not  only  be  useless,  but  pernicious  as 
well.2 

Even  W.  T.  Harris  who  made  a  rather  severe  attack  on  simultane- 
ous instruction  and  who  was  an  outstanding  advocate  of  adaptation  of 
subject-matter  and  instruction  to  individual  differences  in  capacities  and 
aptitudes  of  school  children,  said  in  part,  "But  no  philosophy  of  educa- 


X^uoted  without  specific  reference  by:  Smith,  W.  R.  An  Introduction  to  Educa- 
tional Sociology.    Boston:    Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1917. 

2Smith,  W.  R.  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology.  Boston:  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1917,  p.  12-13. 

[7] 


tion  is  fundamental  until  it  is  based  upon  sociology — not  on  physiology, 
not  even  on  psychology,  but  on  sociology."3 

Early  criticisms  of  the  simultaneous  instruction.  As  a  result  of 
the  enthusiastic  tendency  to  deal  with  groups  instead  of  individuals  as 
units  in  the  teaching  and  learning  process,  an  extreme  class  or  group  in- 
struction prevailed.  The  teacher  tended  to  deal  alike  with  all  children 
irrespective  of  the  variations  in  their  capacities  and  interests.  W.  T. 
Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education  in  the  United  States  from  1899  to 
1906,  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  dangers  of  the  extreme  type  of 
simultaneous  instruction.  He  appreciated  the  advantages  as  well  as  the 
defects  of  group  instruction,  and  called  attention  to  both  in  an  article 
under  the  caption  "The  Early  Withdrawal  of  Pupils  from  Schools" 
printed  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  for 
1872.  Among  the  advantages  he  cited  were:  increase  in  the  length  of 
recitation  for  each  pupil,  since  each  has  as  much  time  as  his  group; 
more  thoroughness  in  the  discussion  of  the  lesson,  sifting  the  different 
statements  and  probing  the  meaning  of  each;  greater  stimulation  of 
mental  activity  of  the  pupil  through  trial  and  competition  with  other 
members  of  the  class.4 

He  gave  the  following  disadvantages  of  the  system:  the  best  pupils 
are  not  tried  to  the  extent  of  their  ability  and  at  the  same  time  the 
poorer  pupils  "are  strained  to  their  utmost,"  and  as  a  result  frequently 
become  discouraged  and  drop  out  of  school  altogether. 

Perhaps  the  most  vehement  critic  of  the  simultaneous  method  of 
instruction  during  the  late  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  P.  W. 
Search.  In  a  book  entitled  "An  Ideal  School,"5  he  described  experi- 
ments to  provide  for  individual  differences  in  capacity  and  interests 
which  had  been  undertaken  in  school  systems  of  which  he  was  the 
superintendent.  He  characterized  the  existing  method  as  the  "lockstep 
in  American  education,"  thus  tending  to  attach  to  the  simultaneous 
method  "the  odium  of  prison  practice." 

I.  Evidence  of  wide  differences  in  the  school  population.  The 
criticisms  of  simultaneous  instruction  given  by  the  earlier  writers  were 
based  entirely  upon  observation.    It  was  not  until  the  first  decade  of 


3Harris,  W.  T.  "Reviews  (Froebel  and  education  by  self-activity),"  Educational 
Review,  6:84,  June,  1893. 

4Harris,  W.  T.  "The  early  withdrawal  of  pupils  from  schools:  Its  causes  and  its 
remedies."  Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association,  Vol.  12. 
Washington:  National  Education  Association,  1872,  p.  266-71. 

5Search,  P.  W.  An  Ideal  School.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1901, 
p.  28-37;  158-76. 

[8] 


the  twentieth  century  that  scientific  data  were  secured  which  gave  light 
as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  differences  existing  among  school 
children.  Thorndike,6  Ayres,7  and  others  are  the  pioneers  in  scientific 
education  and  have  demonstrated  objectively  the  presence  of  individual 
differences.  They  insist  that  for  the  school  to  perform  its  function  prop- 
erly these  differences  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  his  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  published  by  Teachers  College  in  1903,  and  revised 
in  1910,  Thorndike  has  chapters  which  demonstrate  clearly  on  a  sta- 
tistical basis  just  how  great  the  amount  of  these  differences  is  between 
the  fastest  and  the  slowest  members  of  an  ordinary  class.  The  following 
general  statement  is  made  in  his  Principles  of  Teaching: 

"Roughly  speaking,  the  teacher  of  a  class,  even  in  school,  graded 
as  closely  as  is  possible  in  large  cities,  where  two  classes  are  provided 
in  each  building  for  each  grade  and  where  promotion  occurs  every  six 
months,  will  find  in  the  case  of  any  kind  of  work  some  pupil  who  can  do 
from  two  to  five  times  as  much  in  the  same  time,  or  do  the  same 
amount  from  two  to  five  times  as  well,  as  some  other  pupil.  The  highest 
tenth  of  her  class  will  in  any  one  trait  have  an  average  ability  from  one 
and  three  fourths  to  four  times  that  of  the  lowest  tenth." 

Without  going  into  an  extensive  discussion  of  differences  in  cap- 
acity for  learning  school  subjects,  the  overlapping  of  intelligence  which 
is  typical  of  school  children  in  various  grades  is  shown  in  the  following 
diagram.  Figure  1  represents  graphically  the  distribution  of  mental 
ages  as  measured  by  the  Illinois  General  Intelligence  Test.  Each  of  the 
curves  is  based  upon  the  records  of  several  thousand  children.  In  each 
grade  the  range  in  mental  age  is  striking;  there  are  some  pupils  in  the 
fourth  grade  who  are  superior  in  capacity  to  learn  to  a  number  of 
children  in  the  eighth  grade.  The  fact  that  these  differences  in  capacity 
for  learning  school  subjects  exist  between  children  everywhere  is  the 
most  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  adaptation  of  subject-matter  and 
instruction. 

II.   Nature  and  pedagogical  significance  of  individual  differences. 

In  order  to  understand  individual  differences  so  that  remedial  treatment 
in  the  way  of  devices  and  of  methods  may  be  provided  in  our  schools, 
we  must  study  their  nature  and  the  conditioning  factors  that  bring 
them  about. 


6E.  L.  Thorndike  (born  1874),  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  Professor  of  Educational 
Psychology  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  has  probably  done  more  than 
any  other  person  to  promote  the  scientific  study  of  educational  problems. 

7L.  P.  Ayres  (born  1879),  in  his  Laggards  in  Our  Schools  published  in  1909,  was 
the  first  to  conduct  an  extensive  investigation  on  retardation  and  elimination  of  pupils 
from  schools. 

[9] 


1.  Differences  in  home  environment.  Some  of  our  pupils  come  from 
homes  that  provide  all  the  conveniences  favorable  to  pleasant  and  quiet 
study,  such  as  good  warm  study  rooms,  good  lighting,  plenty  of  good 
books  and  magazines  to  read  during  leisure  hours,  and  the  like.  The 
parents  usually  are  educated   and  their  influence   is   apparent  in  the 


percent 
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10 


8 


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GRADE  12 

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6  10  12  14  16 

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22 


Fig.   1. — Showing  the  overlapping  of  intelligence  of  Illinois  school 
children  in  Grades  IV,  VI,  and  VIII* 

*  Monroe,  Walter  S.  '"The  Illinois  Examination."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin. 
Vol.  19,  No.  9,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  Xo.  6.  Urbana:  University  of 
Illinois,  October,  1921,  p.  51. 


differences  of  behavior  which  their  children  exhibit  in  and  outside  of 
the  school.  The  occupational  interests  of  these  parents,  likewise,  influ- 
ence to  no  small  a  degree  the  interests  of  their  children. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  children  come  from  the  slums  of  the 
city,  from  poor  families  where  the  environment  is  anything  but  favor- 


[10] 


able  to  the  cultivation  of  wholesome  interests  and  of  moral  and  spir- 
itual character.  The  homes  are  not  warm  and  comfortable  for  study. 
The  parents,  because  of  the  stress  of  work  in  which  they  are  necessar- 
ily engaged  for  the  support  of  the  family,  are  apt  to  neglect  their  chil- 
dren, thus  leaving  them  to  the  mercy  of  moral  degeneracy.  The  chil- 
dren from  these  poor  families  are  often  ill-fed,  ill-sheltered  and  ill- 
clothed. 

2.  Differences  in  interests  and  attitudes.  In  the  preceding  para- 
graph, the  statement  was  made  that  occupational  interests  of  the  par- 
ents influence  the  interests  of  the  children.  For  instance,  a  child  who  is 
reared  on  a  farm  is  likely  to  be  interested  in  agriculture;  another  child 
who  has  been  brought  up  in  a  manufacturing  district  is  likely  to  have 
his  interests  in  industrial  work.  Interests  also  are  engendered  by  stories 
in  the  magazines  and  newspapers,  by  the  theatre,  and  so  on.  Again, 
there  are  native  interests  which  are  likely  to  continue  unless  a  serious 
attempt  to  modify  them  is  begun  in  early  life. 

3.  Differences  in  health.  Some  children  are  weak  while  others  are 
strong  and  healthy.  This  difference  in  physical  condition  is  either  in- 
herited or  acquired.  The  teacher  in  a  class  can  suggest  treatment,  or 
she  can  advise  the  pupils  of  poor  health  to  consult  a  doctor.  In  either 
case,  she  can  vary  the  assignment  so  as  to  give  less  work  to  the  pupils 
who  are  not  strong.  She  may  also  consult  the  parents  and  at  times  have 
the  pupil  stay  away  from  school  for  a  while.  If  the  poor  health  is  due 
to  ill-feeding  and  ill-shelter,  suggestions  may  be  made  to  the  parents,  or 
in  some  cases  assistance  may  be  given  by  the  school. 

4.  Differences  in  capacity  to  learn,  general  and  specific.  As  indi- 
cated on  pages  7-8,  measurements  of  general  intelligence  have  revealed 
the  fact  that  there  are  wide  differences  among  children  in  their  capacity 
to  learn.  Besides  these  differences  in  general  intelligence  there  exist 
variations  in  their  capacities  to  learn  different  school  subjects.  For 
example,  according  to  certain  investigations,  most  girls  like  subjects 
such  as  language,  history,  and  art,  and  dislike  mathematics  and  science. 
The  boys  seem  to  be  of  another  type,  that  is,  they  like  mathematics 
and  science  but  they  have  no  "taste"  for  language,  history,  and  art. 
Among  boys  and  among  girls,  such  differences  also  are  found.  Whether 
"types"  really  exist,  is  not  as  yet  a  well-established  fact.  Thorndike,  for 
example,  denies,  while  Stern  believes  in,  the  existence  of  types.  Al- 
though the  presence  or  absence  of  "types"  makes  a  great  difference  in 
our  educational  procedure,  our  present  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  not 
adequate  to  justify  our  assumption  that  there  are  or  are  not  types.   It  is 

[11] 


sufficient  to  suggest  to  the  teacher  that  she  try  to  understand  these  ap- 
parent differences  in  capacity  and  ascertain  for  herself  whether  or  not 
they  exist  because  of  a  lack  of  understanding  of  the  subject-matter  or 
because  of  an  original  inaptitude  toward  it. 

5.  Differences  in  temperaments.  Individuals  may  be  graded  with 
respect  to  speed,  vigor,  and  range  of  their  mental  processes  on  scales  of 
quick  to  slow,  intense  to  weak,  and  broad  to  narrow.  Some  children  can 
do  only  one  thing  at  a  time  while  others  can  do  more,  or  at  least  they 
think  they  can  do  more.  Some  are  slow  and  accurate  thinkers  while 
others  are  fast  and  careless.  Some  children  are  persistent  and  tenacious 
in  their  efforts  to  do  assigned  tasks;  others  give  up  easily. 

III.  Methods  and  devices  for  adapting  subject-matter  and  instruc- 
tion to  individual  differences  in  the  elementary  school.  As  we  have 
noted,  our  problem  is  limited  to  those  adaptations  of  subject-matter  and 
instruction  which  the  teacher  may  make.  Six  general  procedures  will  be 
noted. 

1.    Supplementary  assignments  to  proficient  pupils.    One  of  the 

strongest  arguments  advanced  in  support  of  individual  instruction  or  of 
highly  homogeneous  grouping  is  that,  in  group  instruction,  the  more 
capable  pupils  are  allowed  to  mark  time,  they  are  not  given  the 
opportunity  to  advance  according  to  their  own  rate,  and  they  are, 
therefore,  retarded  while  the  slower  ones  are  accelerated.  In  answer  to 
this  argument,  the  supporter  of  simultaneous  instruction  would  provide 
the  more  proficient  pupils  with  supplementary  assignments,  thus  giving 
them  not  only  a  more  extensive  but  also  a  more  intensive  training  in 
any  subject  in  which  they  show  marked  superiority  over  the  other 
members  of  the  class.  According  to  this  plan,  although  the  proficient 
pupils  do  not  advance  more  rapidly  than  the  slower  ones,  they  neverthe- 
less get  better  training  in  that  their  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  is 
more  thorough  and  extensive.  An  added  advantage  is  that  the  virtues 
of  group  instruction  are  kept  and  the  evils  of  individual  instruction 
avoided. 

An  illustration  of  the  plan  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph  is 
taken  from  an  article  by  S.  C.  Parker8  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of 
the  method  used  by  Miss  Stout  in  the  first  grade.  Miss  Stout  had  a 
system  of  grouping  and  regrouping  her  first-grade  pupils  in  reading  in 
order  to  provide  for  differences  in  ability  to  learn.  She  picked  out  the 
four  or  five  pupils  who  could  read  faster  than  the  rest  of  the  class.  After 


8Parker,    S.   C.    "Adapting   instruction   to    differences    in    capacity,"    Elementary 
School  Journal,  25:21,  October,  1924. 

[12] 


these  pupils  had  done  the  regular  work,  they  were  sent  to  the  black- 
board where  more  difficult  material  awaited  them,  or  they  were  given 
a  supplementary  reader  to  read  to  themselves.  Later  they  were  asked 
to  read  to  the  teacher  in  order  to  be  sure  that  they  had  mastered  the 
mechanics  of  reading.  They  were  also  encouraged  to  take  readers  home 
to  read  to  their  mothers,  and  to  bring  to  class  their  own  material  which 
they  exchanged  with  other  pupils.  In  arithmetic  she  provided  sets 
of  graded  number  cards  in  the  four  fundamental  processes,  the  sets  be- 
coming harder  and  harder.  Each  pupil  progressed  as  fast  as  he  could, 
and  when  he  got  through  with  the  required  material  was  given  some 
that  was  more  difficult.  Each  pupil's  handwork  was  praised  and  pre- 
served and  more  difficult  models  were  requested.  Promotions  to  a 
higher  division  also  were  made  from  time  to  time.  The  bright  pupils 
were  sent  to  the  next  grade  on  trial  for  a  number  of  days,  and  if  they 
were  able  to  handle  the  work  of  the  grade  they  remained,  otherwise 
they  returned  to  her  for  further  instruction. 

It  is  clear  in  the  above  illustration  that  differences  of  children  in 
capacity  to  learn  need  not  lead  to  individual  instruction  because  the 
brighter  pupils  can  be  given  extra  assignments  and  may  be  promoted  to 
the  higher  grades  as  soon  as  they  master  the  subject.  They  are  not 
left  to  mark  time,  the  slower  ones  are  not  accelerated,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  virtues  of  group  instruction  are  retained.  It  would  seem  that  if 
Miss  Stout  can  do  this  sort  of  thing  in  the  first  grade,  the  same  method 
with  perhaps  little  modification  can  be  applied  in  the  other  grades. 

2.  Special  periods  for  remedial  instruction.  In  connection  with 
the  supplementary  assignment,  there  may  be  provision  for  special  per- 
iods for  remedial  instruction  in  which  the  teacher  may  devote  most  of 
her  time  to  aiding  and  directing  the  slower  pupils  in  their  studies.  In 
the  meantime  the  brighter  pupils  may  be  engaged  in  the  study  of  sup- 
plementary assignments  such  as  solving  problems,  reading  of  various 
sorts,  drawing,  and  the  like.  Special  periods  may  be  arranged  regularly 
during  the  year,  or  assigned  at  irregular  intervals  where  they  seem 
needed  by  the  teacher  in  charge.  The  recitation,  however,  must  not  be 
neglected  as  the  essential  part  of  the  work. 

In  the  University  of  Chicago  Elementary  School9  there  is  a  sep- 
arate department  called  the  "remedial  department"  which  takes  care  of 

"University  of  Chicago  Elementary  School  Reports,  Vol.  V,  Parts  I  VI  and  X 
1923. 

The  author  expresses  his  indebtedness  to  Mr.  Cook  of  the  School  of  Education 
both  for  giving  permission  to  read  the  reports  and  for  allowing  him  two  personal  con- 
ferences about  the  organization  and  technique  of  the  remedial  department. 

[13] 


"problem  cases," — individual  pupils  who  are  distinctly  backward  in 
their  school  work.  This  department  is  in  charge  of  specialists  who  diag- 
nose the  separate  cases  and  provide  for  remedial  treatment.  The  plan 
for  diagnosis  is  both  elaborate  and  technical.  In  most  school  systems, 
however,  there  are  no  remedial  departments  and  no  specialists  to  handle 
problem  cases.  The  teacher,  however,  can  do  much  in  the  way  of  diag- 
nosing individual  cases  and  of  providing  exercises  to  remove  defi- 
ciences.  In  reading  for  instance,  she  can  detect  cases  of  defects  in  the 
mechanics  and  can  devise  remedial  exercises.  The  same  is  true  in  arith- 
metic, writing,  spelling  and  in  other  subjects.  This  plan,  in  order  to  be 
successful,  calls  for  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

3.  Free  work-and-play  periods.  A  somewhat  different  type  of 
adaptation  for  individual  differences  is  afforded  by  making  provision 
for  free  work-and-play  periods.  On  these  occasions  the  pupils  may  be 
allowed  to  work  upon  projects  which  they  themselves  suggest,  provided 
the  activity  meets  the  approval  of  the  teacher.  When  pupils  have  no 
satisfactory  plans,  the  teacher  may  make  suggestions  and  help  them  to 
select  some  project  or  even  game  having  educative  value.  The  success 
of  free  work-and-play  periods  depends  largely  upon  the  resourcefulness 
of  the  teacher  and  for  this  reason  she  should  observe  the  pupils  both  in 
and  out  of  the  classroom  and  endeavor  to  become  acquainted  with 
their  interests  and  attitudes  so  that  in  the  classroom  she  can  make  pro- 
vision for  these  differences  in  the  way  of  devices,  methods  and  mo- 
tivation. 

4.  Highly  systematized  individual  instruction.  The  Dalton  Plan10 
and  the  Winnetka  Plan,11  although  they  are  dependent  upon  the  general 
organization  of  the  school,  are  the  outstanding  plans  of  individual  in- 
struction which  may  be  employed  by  the  teacher.  The  essential  features 
of  both  plans  and  of  some  others  which  are  modifications  of  them  in- 
clude the  very  careful  preparation  of  sets  of  tasks  or  "problems"  to  be 
worked  out  by  the  pupils  independently.  Each  pupil  works  these  "prob- 
lems" at  his  own  rate,  and  is  allowed  to  advance  to  the  next  division  as 
soon  as  he  passes  a  satisfactory  examination,  usually  a  standardized 
test.  In  some  cases,  promotions  to  the  higher  grades  are  made  as  soon 
as  the  work  is  completed;  in  others,  extra  assignments  are  given  those 
pupils  who  finish  the  work  before  the  semester  or  quarter  is  over.  The 
teacher  devotes  her  time  to  supervising  and  directing  the  study,  espe- 
cially of  those  who  need  help. 


10  •  uBagley,  W.  C.  and  Keith,  J.  A.  H.  An  Introduction  to  Teaching.   New  York: 
The  Macmillan  Company,  1924,  p.  199. 

[14] 


5.  Homogeneous  grouping  of  pupils  within  a  class.  As  in  the  pre- 
ceding plan,  the  homogeneous  grouping  of  pupils  is  dependent  partly 
upon  the  administration.  However,  the  teacher  of  a  class  may  do  very 
much  in  the  light  of  method  and  subject-matter.  If  she  has  two  or 
three  classes,  she  can  divide  them  into  three  sections  according  as  they 
are  fast,  average,  and  slow.  Even  in  the  case  in  which  she  has  only  one 
class,  she  may  divide  the  class  into  three  groups,  appointing  monitors 
among  the  brightest  pupils,  while  she  supervises  the  three  simultane- 
ously-going-on-classes  in  the  same  room. 

6.  "Supervised  Study."  There  are  various  types  of  supervised 
study,  so  many  that  it  is  not  at  all  easy  to  give  a  definition  which  in- 
cludes all.12  In  a  sense,  the  Dalton  and  Winnetka  plans  are  supervised- 
study  plans.  According  to  some  plans,  the  teacher  has  great  freedom 
in  using  the  class  recitation  as  she  sees  fit;  in  some  cases  half  of  the 
period  is  devoted  to  supervised  study  and  the  other  half  to  recitation;  in 
others  the  whole  period  on  one  day  is  used  for  supervised  study  and  on 
the  next  day  for  recitation.  The  proficient  pupils  may  be,  and  are 
usually,  given  extra  work  while  the  teacher  devotes  her  time  to  those 
who  are  most  in  need  of  help. 

IV.  Criteria  for  the  selection  of  a  method  or  a  device.  The  final 
question  that  we  have  to  answer  is:  accepting  the  thesis  that  individual 
differences  exist  and  that  in  order  to  provide  each  pupil  with  the  best 
training,  subject-matter  and  instruction  must  be  adapted  to  these  differ- 
ences; what  kind  of  provisions  should  the  teacher  employ?  In  other 
words,  what  should  be  the  basis  of  the  selection  of  the  procedures  used? 

In  answering  this  question  as  in  answering  many  other  educational 
questions  in  school  administration  and  methods  of  teaching,  we  need  to 
consider  the  fundamental  basis  of  all  educational  endeavor  and  to  make 
our  procedure  follow  a  sound  educational  theory  and  philosophy.  My 
answer  then  is  very  largely  determined  by  my  educational  philosophy 
which  has  been  derived  in  part  from  certain  psychological  and  sociologi- 
cal facts. 

If  education  is  to  be  as  in  the  past,  a  mere  accumulation  of  knowl- 
edge, a  mere  acquisition  of  skill,  "if  it  is  mainly  a  matter  of  rote  drill, 
if  it  touches  no  enthusiasm,  and  arouses  no  deep-seated  sympathies,  and 
no  development  of  the  humane,  tolerant,  broadly  sympathetic  temper  of 


12Brownell,  W.  A.  "A  study  of  supervised  study."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin, 
Vol.  22,  No.  41,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  26.  Urbana:  University 
of  Illinois,  1925.  48  p. 

[15] 


mind  which  we  call  democratic  attitude,"13  then  extreme  individual  in- 
struction and  homogeneous  grouping  of  pupils  for  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion will  be  the  most  practical  and  the  most  efficient  method.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  education  is  to  be  interpreted  as  being  an  agency  in  facili- 
tating understanding  and  appreciation  of  all  human  interests,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  things  be  taught  in  their  "social  context,"  that  is,  they  must 
illuminate  human  life  in  general. 

It  is  apparent  that  such  illumination  of  life  is  only  possible  when 
individuals  are  grouped  so  that  they  realize  that  they  are  a  company  of 
learners,  working  and  cooperating  for  a  common  welfare,  each  contrib- 
uting his  share  and  each  getting  from  the  contribution  of  others  some- 
thing which,  when  added  to  his  own,  will  make  him  a  man  or  woman 
rich  in  sympathy,  strong  in  tendency  to  cooperate  with  his  fellows,  and 
ready  to  take  his  share  without  feeling  a  stranger  when  he  gets  out  of 
school  to  participate  in  the  life  of  the  community.  The  school  therefore 
must  provide  a  social  environment  which  will  be  conducive  to  the  en- 
gendering of  all  these  qualities.  Obviously,  such  qualities  will  not  be 
acquired  efficiently  in  the  extreme  type  of  individual  instruction  in 
which  the  child  is  confined  in  his  own  cell,  learning  his  book  in  his  own 
way  and  receiving  instruction  from  the  teacher.  Intercommunication 
and  cooperation  in  the  school  are  necessary  for  the  building  up  of  com- 
mon-mindedness  and  "community  of  interests."  At  best  the  school  is  an 
artificial  institution.  Why  should  it  be  made  more  artificial  and  even 
useless  and  injurious  in  the  sense  that  it  becomes  a  hindrance  rather 
than  an  agency  for  the  cultivation  of  right  social  habits? 

The  writer's  attitude  on  this  subject,  as  is  already  stated,  is  far 
from  being  opposed  entirely  to  making  any  provisions  for  individual 
differences.  He  is  rather  endeavoring  to  combat  the  tendency  of  many  . 
schoolmen  to  abolish  group  instruction  and  to  establish  either  the  ex- 
treme type  of  individual  instruction  or  else  to  divide  the  pupils  in  grades 
according  to  their  abilities.  He  is  insisting  on  giving  every  child  every 
opportunity  to  acquire  knowledge  without,  however,  surrendering  the 
other  phase  of  human  development,  namely,  the  virtue  that  comes  out 
of  group  life.  In  other  words,  he  holds  that  education  is  the  develop- 
ment of  self  in  two  directions  which  must  be  supplementary  instead  of 
opposed  to  each  other.  There  is  the  development  of  the  individual  by 
his  acquisition  of  skill  and  knowledge  as  such,  but  there  is  another 
development  of  the  self,  the  engendering  of  broad  human  sympathies, 
group-mindedness  and  moral  and  social  values  which  can  only  be  ac- 


13Bode,  B.  H.   Fundamentals  of  Education.    New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1922,  p.  63. 

[16] 


quired  under  group  instruction.  Man  is  both  an  individual  and  a  social 
being.  Individual  instruction  in  a  sense  must  be  directed  toward  a  more 
efficient  social  relationship.  Consequently,  the  best  method  is  that  of 
adaptation  of  subject-matter  and  instruction  to  individual  differences 
which  goes  along  with  group  instruction. 

More  concretely  and  specifically,  it  is  recommended  that  a  scheme, 
such  as  has  been  described  on  pages  10-11,  or  supplementary  assign- 
ments to  proficient  pupils  with  special  periods  for  remedial  instruction 
be  adopted.  This  procedure  fulfills  to  my  mind  the  social  as  well  as  the 
individual  aim  of  education. 


[17] 


w 


}} 


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[19] 


CIRCULARS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH   COLLEGE 
OF  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA,  ILLINOIS 

No.  19.  Streitz,  Ruth.   Provisions  for  Exceptional  Children  in  191  Illinois  Cities. 

No.  20.  McClusky,  Frederick  Dean.    Place  of  Moving  Pictures  in  Visual  Education. 

No.  21.  Monroe,  Walter  S.    Announcement  of  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
for  1923-24. 

No.  22.  Odell,  Charles  W.    Provisions  for  the  Individual  Differences  of  High  School 
Pupils. 

No.  23.  Monroe,  Walter  S.    Educational  Guidance  in  High  Schools. 

No.  24.  Nolan,  Aretas  W.   The  Project  in  Education  with  Special  Reference  to  Teach- 
ing Agriculture. 

No.  25.  Monroe,  Walter  S.  and  Clark,  John  A.    Measuring  Teaching  Efficiency. 

No.  26.  Barton,  H.  J.,  Clark,  E.  L.,  Pence,  Helen,  and  others.  Notes  on  the  Teaching 
of  Latin  in  High  Schools. 

No.  27.  Streitz,  Ruth.   Educational  Diagnosis. 

No.  28.  Staley,  Seward  C.    The  Program  of  Sportsmanship  Education. 

No.  29.  Odell,  Charles  W.   The  Use  of  the  Question  in  Classroom  Instruction. 

No.  30.  Odell    Charles  W;    The  Evaluation  and  Improvement  of  School  Buildings 
Grounds  and  Equipment. 

No.  31.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   The  Planning  of  Teaching. 

No.  32.  Miller,    F.   J      Flickinger,    R.    C,    Sargent,    Rachel    L.,    Luke,    Ethel    J., 
lnompson,  Glenna  D.,  and  others.    Latin  in  High  Schools. 

No.  33.  Odell,    Charles    W.     Educational    Tests    for    Use    in    Elementary    Schools, 
Revised. 

No.  34.  Odell,  Charles  W.    Educational  Tests  for  Use  in  High  Schools,  Revised. 
No.  35.  Monroe,  Walter  S.    The  Making  of  a  Course  of  Study. 

No.  36.  Reagan,    George    W.     Principles    Relating   to   the    Engendering   of    Specific 
Habits. 

No.  37.  Herriott,  M.  E.    How  to  Make  a  Course  of  Study  in  Arithmetic. 
No.  38.  Odell,  Charles  W.   The  Assignment  of  Lessons. 

No.  39.  Prescott,    Henry    W.,    Flickinger,    Roy    C,    Woodruff,    Laura    B.,    Whaley 
Irene  G.,  and  others.  Appreciation  of  Latin. 

No.  40.  Orata,  Pedro  T.  Adaptation  of  Subject-Matter  and  Instruction  to  Individual 
Differences  in  the  Elementary  School. 

A  limited  number  of  copies  of  these  educational  circulars  are  available  for  free  distribution  to 
supenntendents  and  teachers  in  Illinois.  We  shall  be  glad  to  add  to  our  mailing  list  for  these 
circulars  the  names  of  any  teachers  or  superintendents  who  care  to  receive  them  regularly.  We 
shall  be  glad  also  to  send  additional  copies  of  any  circular  to  superintendents  or  principals  for  dis- 
tribution among  their  teachers.  Address  all  communications  to  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
University  of  Illinois. 

Mf  lipw*  ' 

FEB  1  7  1S26 

UNiVfcHSH*   Of   ILUrtuRi 


